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CHAPTER FIVE: RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

5.1 Land use pattern:

The average size of home garden and its utilization pattern in the study area and farm categories have been shown in Table 5.1.

Table 5.1: Home garden utilization pattern in different farm categories.

Household category	Avg. Home garden Size(In hectare)	Average Area (In hectare) Used for Different Purposes
		Cattle Shed	Pond	Trees, Shrubs(betel leaf)	Vegetable Garden	Threshing & Drying Ground	Unutilized Land
Land less	0(9)	0	0	0	0	0	0
Large	3.91(21)	0.04	0	3.52	0.35	0	0
Average	0.79	0.01	0	0.70	0.07	0	0

Note: the figure within parentheses shows the number of household in each category.

Figure 5.1: Home garden utilization pattern in different farm categories

Two types of household category exist in the study area. These are only small & large category. It is mentioned that there have no ownership of land among households. The king of that area is the only owner all of these land. The farmers had taken land from the Raja (king) by paying the Khajna (revenue). Among these farmers, the landless people have no any kind of garden. They earn money by working in others farm. Their livelihoods depend on laboring.

The average size of the home garden of large farm is 3.91(hac). They are interested only to produce betel leaf & supari as well as a very few other tree species. So a large area (3.52) is used for these species. A very few area are used for cattle shed (0.04) & vegetable garden (0.35).

All the categories of farm were not found to have area for ponds as well as unutilized land.

5.2 Socio-economic aspect of households:

To evaluate the role of rural people in forestry activities, it is important to know the socio-economic profile of households. Latif and Rahman (1988) recognize a wide range of socio-economic characteristics which may have significant bearing on the performance of an individual. These include age, level of education, occupational background, socio-economic status, cast, leadership qualities, etc.

However, the present study had generated only limited information on demographic features, land holding pattern, sources of income, etc.

5.2.1 Demographic features of the study area

The total population of the surveyed households was 210 (Table 5.2), averaging 7 members. 49% of the total population was female and the rest was male.

Table 5.2: Family size of the households in the study area.

Sex	Age (year) group
	<10	11-20	21-30	31-40	41-50	51-60	>60
Male N=107 Female N=103 Total N=210	52(25)	42(20)	61(29)	23(11)	18(9)	10(5)	4(2)

Male : Female = 107 : 103.

Note: N= Total population. Figures in parentheses indicate percentage values.

Among the population most of the members was up to 20 years age group and minimum of the members are up to 60 years age group. Male-Female ratio was found to be 107:103.

5.2.2 Educational Status of the Households:

Table 5.3: Distribution of Households by Educational Status:

Level of Education	No. of Individuals	Percentage
Illiterate	135	64.28
Primary	48	22.85
Secondary	25	11.90
Higher Secondary or More	2	1.48
Total	210	100

Distribution of the households by educational status is represented in Table 5.3. From the study it was observed that about 64% people (both male and female) are illiterate, about 23%, 12% and 2% people have the quality of education at Primary level, and Secondary level and Higher Secondary level respectively.

5.2.3 Households distribution based on land holding :

Figure 5.2: Distribution of Households by Land Category.

Table 5.4: Distribution of Households by Land Category:

Land Holding Category	Land area(in hectare )	No. of households	Percentage
Land less	<0.02	9	30
Marginal	>0.02-0.08	0	0
Small	>0.08-0.14	0	0
Medium	>0.14-0.20	0	0
Large	>0.20	21	70

Table 5.4 shows the land holding pattern of the households of study area. It is revealed from the table that almost 30% households have no land. It is clear that almost 70% of the household had land ranging >0.20 (ha), which are significantly higher.

5.2.4 Income Distribution and Source of Income:

Table 5.5: Distribution of Sample Households by Annual Income Groups

Income (Tk.)	No. of Households	Percentage
10000-15000	3	10
16000-20000	3	10
21000-25000	1	3.33
36000-40000	4	13.33
46000-50000	1	3.33
56000-60000	7	23.33
96000-100000	1	3.33
100000-150000	7	23.33
>150000	3	10
Total	30	100

Table 5.5 shows the income distribution of the households. They were divided into nine income groups based on their (respondent’s) minimum and maximum income. From the table it was clear that only 10% respondents had a mean annual income of Tk. 10000-Tk. 15000 which is minimum income and 10% had a mean annual income of above Tk. 150000 which is significantly maximum income.

Table 5.6: Distribution of Households by primary income sources:

Source of Income	No. of Respondents	Percentage
Betel leaf	22	73.33
Labors	7	23.33
Stone business	1	3.33
Total	30	100

Source of income of the respondents is shown in Table 5.6, which reveals that about 73% households’ primary income source was betel leaf. 23.33% households’ main income source was day labor

Table 5.7: Distribution of Households by secondary income sources:

Source of Income	No. of Respondents	Percentage
Betel nut	16	53.33
Agriculture	1	3.33
Business	1	3.33
Others	1	3.33

Source of income of the respondents is shown in Table 5.7, which reveals that about 53.33%, 3.33%, 3.33% and 3.33% households’ secondary source of income was supari, Agriculture, Business and others respectively.

5.2.5 Animal Resources of the households:

Table 5.8: Distribution of animal resources among the households:

Category	Distribution of households on animal resource possession
	Cow	Goat	Hen	Duck	Pig
Land less	0	0	0	0	0
Large	3	0	24	0	7
Average	0.1	0	0.8	0	0.24

The table 5.8 reveals that the average number of hen is higher than other live stocks.

5.2.6 Horizontal structure:

On the basis of planting locations, species can be divided into two categories. Some species which are planted a little are planted around the home. Some species which are planted more are planted such a location that is so far from their house. Now species can be divided into three categories: species for the border only; species for the interior only; species for both the border and the interior only. Am, peyera, jam, pepe, kola, etc are planted both border & interior parts around the home gardens. On the other hand, supari, betel leafs Kanthal, Kuma,Raintree, Anaros etc are planted both border & interior parts of the second categories location. Here supari & the betel leaf are the dominant plants. There are found one type of species called ‘Patabahar’ at the border part. These types of species are used as fencing.

5.3 Tree Resources:

5.3.1 Existing Tree Species in the Home gardens:

A wide variety of tree species was found in the study area. As many as 21 different tree species were found (Table 8, 9 and 10). Out of them 14 were horticultural species, 7 were timber yielding species and no new species were fuel wood species. It was also clear that betel leaf and supari were growing extensively in the study area.

Table 5.9: Horticultural Species Found in Home garden:

SL. No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	Family	Avg. No. of Trees per Households	Percentage of Households Having the Species
1	Jack fruit	Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.	Moraceae	10	95.33
2	Mango	Mangifera indica L	Anacardiaceae	8	83.33
3	Betel nut (supari)	Areca cetechu L	Palmae	893	53.33
4	Narikel	Mangifera indica L.	Palmae	2.00	60
5	Peyara	Psidium guajava L.	Myrtaceae	3.69	85
6	Kamranga	Averrhoa carambola		1.46	73.33
7	Jambura	Citrus grandis (L.) Osbeck.	Rutaceae	0.66	66.66
8	Pepe	Carica papaya L.	Caricaceae	2.8	93.33
9	Orange	Citrus reticulate Blanco	Rutaceae	0.6	20
10	Banana	Musa sapientum L.	Musaceae	1.8	90
11	Dalim	Punica granatum L.	Punicaceae	1	50
12	Jam	Syzygium spp. L.	Myrtaceae	3.15	60
13	Anaros	Annas comusus	Bromiliaceae	4	55
14	Morich	Capsicum frutescens	Solanaceae	3.66	60

Of the horticultural species (Table 5.9), betel nut (Areca catechu)) was the highest in number, followed by Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Mango (Mangifera indica) and Pepe(Carica papaya) .

Table 5.10: Timber yielding species found in home garden:

SL. No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	Family	Avg. No. of Trees Per Household	Percentage of Household Having the Species
1	Jackfruit	Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.	Moraceae	10	95.33
2	Champa	Michelia champaca L.	Magnoliaceae	10.26	73.33
3	Kuma	Toona ciliate M.J.Roem	Meliaceae	8	70
4	Mango	Mangifera indica L	Anacardiaceae	8	83.33
5	Madar	Erythrina variegata Linn.	Leguminosae	4	66.66
6	Raintree	Albizia saman	Leguminosae	10	82.10
7	Neem	Azadirachta indica A.Juss.	Meliaceae	3	70.33

Among the timber yielding species (Table 5.10), Champa (Michelia champaca) was the highest in intensity (average 10.26 numbers per household), followed by Raintree (Albizia saman), Rain tree (Albizia saman) and Mango (Mangifera indica). Kuma (Toona ciliate).

Table 5.11: Fuel wood Species Found in Home garden:

SL. No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	Family	Avg. No. of Tress Per Household	Percentage of Household Having the Species
1	Jackfruit	Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.	Moraceae	10	95.33
2	Mango	Mangifera indica L	Anacardiaceae	8	83.33
3	Betel nut	Areca cetechu L	Palmae	893	53.33

Among the fuel wood species jackfruit are widely used followed by Mango, Betel nut.

Table 5.12: NTFP Producing Species Found in Home garden:

SL. No.	Common Name	Scientific Name	Avg. No. of plants Per Household	Percentage of Household Having the Species
1	Bamboo	Bambusa spp	3	43.33
2	Kola (Banana)	Musa sapientum L.	1.8	90
3	Betel nut	Areca cetechu L	893	53.33
4	Pepe	Carica papaya L.	2.8	93.33
6	Betel leaf	Piper betle	≥1353	73.33

Betel leaf and betel nut were extensively growing about every large household there. Four kinds of Bamboo species were found in the study area. These are Jai (Bambusa vulgaris), Borua (Bambusa balcooa), Betua (Bambusa polymorpha) and Mitinga (Bambusa tulda).

5.3.2 Utilization of home garden products.

Table 5.13: Utilization of home garden products:

Products	No of households
	Own consumption	Distributed to neighbors	Sell in market
Fruits	30	10	0
Fuel wood	30	0	0
Timber	30	0	0
Bamboo	30	0	0
Betel leaf	30	0	22
Betel nut	30	0	16

The table 5.13 reveals that all the home garden products were consumed 100% by the owners themselves. A small portion of fruits were distributed to the neighbors. Betel leaf & betel nut products are sold in the market only.

5.3.3 Preferences in planting trees.

Table 5.14: Distribution of households on the basis of preference

Preference	No. of Households	Percentage
Betel leaf	22	73.33
Betel nut (Supari)	16	53.33
Fruits	22	73.33
Fuel Wood	22	73.33
Timber	22	73.33
Homestead boundary	22	73.33
Protection from Environmental Hazards	22	73.33

Respondent’s perception with regard to benefits and importance of home garden trees presented in Table 13. Yield of betel leaf, betel nut, fruits, timber and fuel wood received highest preference from the respondents. Generally, landless people have nothing to do. They have only one place where they can live only. People were more interested to grow betel leaf and supari in comparison to other species to meet their financial needs. They like to earn cash money. And from this money they buy everything whatever they wish.

5.4 Indigenous management techniques of home gardens.

5.4.1 Planting materials:

Seeds, seedlings & vegetative propagules are all used to regenerate plants in home gardens. Bambusa spp are propagated vegetative from branch cutting. Most timber species are propagated from seedlings and/or seed. Fruit producing species are propagated from seed. Betel leaf & betel nut are propagated from branch cutting and seedlings respectively.

5.4.2 Advantages & disadvantages of different planting materials:

Advantages and disadvantages of using different planting materials are given below.

Advantages of using seeds:

• Seeds are easy to grow.
• Seeds can be found easily
• Seeds show better survival rate.

Disadvantage of seed:

o Seeds are hampered very much by sudden flood.

Advantages of using seedlings:

o No damage is occurred by livestock

o Sound subsequent growths are found.

o Better survival rates are ensured.

o Satisfactory species can be introduced.

o There are less chance to attack in seedlings from insects and pests.

Disadvantages of seedlings:

• Seedlings are costly.
• They are not available.

Advantages of using Vegetative propagules:

• Vegetative propagules are easily available.
• Improved varieties can be introduced
• Better survival rates are ensured.
• Sound subsequent growths are found.
• Genetic characteristics can be preserved
• One way to propagate
• Better quality can be introduced

Disadvantages of Vegetative propagules:

• Vegetative propagules are not suitable for all desired species.
• Gene characteristics can not be changed.

5.4.3 Sources of planting materials:

For the supply of planting materials, farmers depend on five different sources. These are market, mother tree, friend & relative, Government nursery, wildings. Among these mother tree is the main source of planting materials. About 80 per cent planting materials are collected from mother trees. The rest materials are collected from other source depending on facility. It is noticed that farmers obtain planting materials as gifts from their friends & relatives as well as there is also a tradition of exchanging planting materials.

5.4.4 Mother tree selection:

Mother trees were selected from the existing trees of the home gardens. Some criteria are considered by the farmers in case of mother tree selection. This are-

• The mother trees must be ability to produce large sized fresh fruits
• The mother tree will have to be free from pests and diseases.
• The yielding capacity must be high.
• High variety mast be given.
• The crown development should be fine.

5.4.5 Size of seedlings:

Three size of seedling was recognized by the farmers, like small (<45>90 cm). Medium sized seedlings are regarded as the best planting size for seedlings by all farmers. The advantages of medium sized seedlings are-

. Fast subsequent growth

. Free from pest, disease

. Mortality rate low

. More hardy to drought or flood water logging

5.4.6 Spacing followed at the time of planting in home gardens:

They maintain gaps between the plants about 6 to 7 hand distances.

5.4.7 Cultural operations practiced in the homegardens:

Farmers try to minimize competition among plants in the home garden by practicing different cultural operation. Weeding, pruning, thinning are the cultural operations practiced by farmers from all regions.

Wedding is done once at every month with the help of hired labors. Farmers perform pruning operations both regularly & irregularly with the help of hired labors. Regular pruning is done once a year & irregularly pruning is done when they feel it necessary. Thinning is done once every ten to fifteen years. Again irregular thinning is done by farmers with the help of hired labors.

5.4.8 Watering & fertilizing in homegardens:

Actually planting in the home garden was done during the rainy season. So there have no need to water. But at the dry season watering is done by farmers. The quantity of water is depended on farmer’s idea. So farmers maintain irregular watering schedules. It is restricted to give water in betel leaf & supari during dry season.

Cow dung is widely used in home gardens. No chemical fertilizer is used at any level. Farmers are confident that the soil fertility of the home gardens need not to be maintained as it is naturally maintained by leaf litter. A very few cases farmers reduce pest & disease attack by planting neem instead of using pesticide.

5.4.9 Planting interaction:

Actually farmers have knowledge about plant interaction. They are mainly engaged with the plantation of betel leaf & supari. They are always sincere only these trees. When shade coming from large trees hampers the growth of betel leaf & supari, they prune the old branches. They change the crown dimension of large trees such a way so that light can be easily penetrated in the garden. They reduce the competition among plants in regard of light, air, nutrient etc. Around their home, they are not interested about planting interaction among trees

5.5 Gender role:

5.5.1 Division of labor:

Traditionally there is a clear sharing of tasks among family members. Men are engaged outside for farm work as well as women are engaged inside of home for their house work. When men getting back in their house, men & women work together. Actually there is no definite rule about their work. They can share their work easily among themselves. It is noticed that women is the head of the household about 80%.

5.5.2 Labor requirement & gender concern in home garden management:

Various home garden management activities are distributed equally throughout the year and labor requirements are also distributed properly. All men, women & children devote their labor on full and part time basis to various home garden operations. They also depend on hired labor to manage their home garden. A large number of hired labors are worked in the garden. The owners of garden just give instruction to the hired labors how to work. The numbers of hired labor are greater than the owner. About 10% owners do their work without the help of hired labor.

5.5.3 Gender roles in decision making regarding home garden management:

Decisions regarding home garden management are usually taken together by family members although the head of the households are women in case of about 80% family.

5.5.4 Gender’s access to different resources:

There have no land ownership of khasia people. The king is the owner of that land. The farmers have to give khajna (revenue) for land to the king. They do not take any loan from anywhere like Bank.

5.5.5 Farmer’s awareness about functional aspects of homegarden:

Financial supporting as a first function from home gardens is recognized by farmers. Their main source of earning money is home gardens products. Foods, shade, aesthetic beauty as a function are recognized in their homestead forest.

5. 6 Marketing of the home garden products:

The farmers of this home garden sell only betel leaf & supari to the market. They earn money only from these sources. So they produce only betel leaf & supari highly. The rest homestead products were consumed by the owners themselves. Two type of market structure are found in this area. In the first channel the farmers collect their products & sell to the local market.

Figure 5.3: marketing channel of homestead forest products in the study areas.

In the second channel the wholesaler directly come to the households and collect the products. These are then sold by them to the consumers.

5.7 Cultivation technique of betel leaf:

Vegetative propagates are used by the farmers to regenerate betel leaf. For growing betel leaf, it needs host plant. Betel leafs are propagated from branch cutting. Branch cutting is collected from the apex portion of mother species at the rate of 1.5 - 2 feet. Then the cutting portion is planted in soil keeping some distance from host trees. The part (i.e. the apex part of the cutting portion) that is not connected with soil, have to be attached with the host plant. With the going of time, the branch cutting is being attached by developing one type of spiny with the host plan naturally. And it increase spirally. Maximum host plants are supari as well as other timber species are used. After planting, no leafs are collected within two or three months. Leafs are then collected. Leafs can be collected at six or seven times. Regeneration can be done after three times again. Planting is done in rainy season.

5.8 Cultivation technique of betel nut:

Seed and/or seedlings are used to regenerate of betel nut. Seed are planted in a place that might be inside of plantation area or outside of that area. When it raises about 4.5 or 6 feet, it is transferred to plantation site with the rooted soil. Then seedlings are planted maintaining a distance about six to seven (hand) among each other. The extra soil is given all around the seedling after planting for keeping distance from water surface level. This increased height of soil level protects the trees from flood water. For removing water logging drainage system is done within garden by digging soil. Patabahar, wire or cutting bamboo are used for making boundary. Rotting and water deficiency are major problems. One kind of pesticide that’s correct name is unknown to them is used in garden. Pruning is done to reduce competition among trees. 300 – 400 seedlings are planted at same time. Supari are collected once a time per year.

5.9 Constraints in the home garden:

There are some constraints that are seen in the home gardens like flood, rotting, water deficiency etc. Floods reduce the growth of betel leaf as well as water logging is created in the plantation area. Thus growth is hampered very much.