Papers

CHAPTER: 6

HISTORY OF FOREST AND FOREST MANAGEMENT IN BANGLADESH

6.1. Forest type and area

Bangladesh is a densely populated country, lying between 88° 34’ and 26° 38’ North and between 88° 10’ and 92° 41’ East (Hossain et al. 1997), with an area of 147,570 square kilometers (Figure 2). It occupies a unique geographical location, spanning a relatively short stretch of land between the Himalayan chain and the Indian Ocean, and it is virtually the only drainage outlet for the river basin complex consisting of the Ganges, Brahamaputra and Meghna rivers and their network of tributaries (GoB 1992).

6.2. Area distribution of Different Land use Category

Land Use Category	Area (Million Hectare)	Percent
Agriculture	9.57	64.9
State Forest
Classfied	1.52	10.3
Unclassified	0.73	5
Private Forest
Homestead	0.27	1.8
Tea/Rubber Garden	0.07	0.5
Urban	1.16	7.9
Water	0.94	6.4
Other	0.49	3.2
Total	14.75	100

6.3. Total Forest Land of Bangladesh

Category of Forests	Area (Million Hectare)	Percentage
Forest Department Managed Forests	1.52	10.30
Unclassed State Forest	0.73	4.95
Village Forest	0.27	1.83
Total	2.52	17.08

6.4. Forest Area Managed by FD

Category of Forests	Area (Million Hectare)	Percentage
Hill Forests	0.67	4.54
Natural Mangrove Forests	0.60	4.07
Mangrove Plantations	0.13	0.88
Plain Land Sal Forest	0.12	0.81
Total	1.52	10.30

Source: Forest Department, Bangladesh

FOREST COVER OF BANGLADESH

Source: Forest Department, Bangladesh

The Hill Forest mainly situated in the district of Chittagong, Cox’s Bazar, Rangamati, Khagrachari, Bandarban and Sylhet. The total area of the Hill Forest is 670,000 hectare which accounts for 44% of total area managed by the Forest Department and 4.54% of total area of Bangladesh.

Sundarban, the world’s largest contiguous natural mangrove forest in Bangladesh covers an area of 6,017 sq. km which accounts for 4.07% of total area of Bangladesh and 40% of total area managed by the Forest Department. The area covered by the three wildlife sanctuaries in the Sundarban is 1,39,700 hectare that was declared as ‘World Heritage site’ by the UNESCO in 1997.

The plain land ‘Sal’ forest is situated mainly in the district of Gazipur, Tangail, Mymensingh, Sherpur, Jamalpur, Netrokona, Naoga, Rangpur, Dinajpur and Panchagar. The total area of Sal Forest is 120,000 hectare which accounts for 0.81% of total area of Bangladesh and 7.89% of total area managed by the Forest Department.

The majority (64.2%) of land is under agricultural use and only 10.2% of the total land is under forest cover (FAO 2005), although this figure is often disputed (according to Mondal et al. (2004), the forest cover is 17.5%). The estimated rate of deforstation in natural forests during 1981- 85 was 8000 ha annually, which increased during 1990-95, to an annual rate of deforestation of 8800 ha (FAO 1999). At the same time, the population of Bangladesh has increased rapidly. The annual deforestation rate in South Asia is 0.6% (Gain 2002) whereas in Bangladesh it is estimated to be between less than 1% (FAO 1999) and 3.3% (FMP 1993). Such variation may be explained by the fact that the areas affected by forest degradation and deforestation have not been properly surveyed and mapped (Amin et al. 2002). However, per capita forestland in Bangladesh has shrunk to 0.022 hectares, considered to be one of the lowest in the world (Choudhury 2005). The exact sizes and location of forests has never been reliably determined, except by periodic estimations based on visual observations (e.g. FMP 1993). Only 61% of the gazetted State Forests were estimated to carry tree cover in 1988 (FAO 1988), and it is thought that nearly half of the forestlands are without significant tree cover. In land designated as the Hill Forest, only 54% can be considered to be forested. In designated Mangrove forest, 99% of the land is forested, but only 32% of the designated Sal forest is covered in forest (Amin et al. 2002). About half of the area of the Mangrove Forest of the Chakoria Sundarbans, some 3,000 ha, has been cleared for shrimp cultivation. In recognition of these defi ciencies, since 1994 the Government has shifted its policy and placed emphasis on participatory and social forestry. Large-scale afforestation has been initiated through this programme (Amin et al. 2002), and in the period from 1990 to 2000, the total forest area has been increasing at a rate of 1.3% per year (FAO 2005). The forests of Bangladesh consist of a mosaic of units with high (e.g., natural forests), moderate (e.g., semi-natural forests) and poor (e.g., plantations) floristic and faunal diversity (Biswas 2001). Das (1990) classified the forests of Bangladesh into four broad types based on their ecological attributes (see Table 1). Of the forest area, 46.9% is under forest plantations including roadside plantations. Though the percentage of area under plantation is quite satisfactory in reality the status of forest plantations are really poor. The remaining 43.1% of the forest area consists of natural forest and barren forestland (Choudhury 2005). The Forest Department manages 9.5% of the forest area, and 55% is under the jurisdiction of district administrations (Das and Siddiqi 1985). Almost half of the existing forestland is under different types of non-forest land use, including shifting agriculture, illegal occupation, unproductive areas and other areas (ADB 1999). According to Khan et al. (2004), two parallel systems of production forests exist in Bangladesh, namely government forests, run by the Forest Department, and private forests. Although at present 10.2% of the land area of Bangladesh is under ‘forest cover’, most is no longer covered with trees or vegetation (GoB 1992). Among the forests of Bangladesh, natural forest is disappearing vary rapidly and at present a high proportion (46.9%) consists of forest plantations (FAO 2001). However, the area of plantations will not meet future demands for wood (Biswas 2001).

6.5. ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE OF BANGLADESH FOREST DEPARTMENT

Responsibility for forestry was passed to the Bangladesh Forest Department after the independence of Bangladesh in 1971.
Bangladesh Senior Forest Service was renamed as Bangladesh Civil Service (Forest) Cadre under Bangladesh Civil Service Cadre Rules, 1980.

The forestry is a biological phenomenon deals with plants and animals of various forms. As an organization, Forest Department has multi-dimensional functions of forest resource conservation and management, protection and management of biodiversity and watersheds along with economic and ecological development of the country. For the sustainable management of country’s forest wealth, efficient and adequate manpower together with logistics is a prerequisite.

There were 7385 revenue posts in the Forest Department, which have been increased to 8681 with the reorganization of the Forest Department in the year 1999. The reorganization of the Department with the enhancement of the posts shall facilitate to implement the objectives set in the National Forestry Policy.

The Government of Bangladesh formulated Forestry Sector Master Plan (FSMP) in 1993.The objectives of the FSMP are to optimizing the contribution of forest resources for environmental stability and socio-economic development through people-oriented forestry programs. The new Forest Policy was promulgated in 1994 responsive to implement and materialize FSMP directives and recommendations.

Major Programs of FSMP are:
	People-oriented Programs.
	Production-Directed Programs.
	Institutional Strengthening.
Following issues are the pre-requisite in order to achieve FSMP objectives and for management, expansion, conservation and development of the forest resources:
	Good policy directives and legislation
	Infrastructure development
	Institutional reform
The administrative head of Forest Department is the Chief Conservator of Forest (CCF). The Forest Department is divided into 4 wings considering magnitude of the works and line of jurisdiction. Each wing is administered by a Deputy Chief Conservator of Forest (DCCF).
The Wings are:
Forest Management Wing Social Forestry Wing Planning Wing Education and Training Wing There are 9 Circles in the Forest Department; each circle is headed by a Conservator of Forest (CF).
The Circles are: 5- Forest Management Circles 3-Social Forest Circles and 1-Wildlife and Nature Conservation Circle Similarly there are 44 Forest Divisions, each division is headed by a Divisional Forest officer (DFO) / (DCF) 24-Forest Management Divisions 13-Social Forest Divisions 4-Wildlife Management and Nature Conservation Divisions and 3-Management Plan Divisions 6.7. Organizational Structure Of Bangladesh Forest Department

Source: Forest Department, Bangladesh

6.8. Trends of forest management of Bangladesh:

Forests and their sustainable management are a major concern of the Bangladesh Government (Biswas 2001). For nearly one hundred years, the British colonial system shaped Bangladesh’s forest management, as in India and Pakistan (Rishi 2002). During the colonial period, forests were managed following a management plan with the prime objective of meeting the needs for wood in various forms (e.g., sleepers and fuel for the railways, wood for construction and such other uses) on a sustained yield basis (Choudhury 2005). During the Pakistan period (1948-1971), while meeting the demands of wood of the country by harvesting the natural forests, attempts were initiated to convert the existing less commercially valuable natural forest to more valuable forest plantations. Forests were managed following a management plan (Pant 1982). These management plans, termed working plans, were written for a given area, and were valid for a period of 10 years (e.g. Ahmed 1961, Choudhury 1960, Curtis 1931).

After liberation in 1971, a total ban was imposed on the felling of trees, suspending the ongoing management plans. Plantation forestry was continued on a limited scale in denuded areas (GoB 1992). Most of the plantations were under different development projects (e.g. Thana Unnayan and Nursery Development project, FSP, FRM). By 1980 Bangladeshi foresters had developed the innovative approach of afforesting the newly formed mud flats along the coast and foreshores.

The conventional central management system of forest resources in Bangladesh has been recognized as being unsuitable for the resource base and the socio-economic situation. Because of the inability to prevent widespread overexploitation of forest resources, many state forest areas have open access and have been rapidly degraded under population pressure and increasing demands of forest products. To cope with these problems, since 1992 the Bangladeshi Government has developed a participatory forest management and conservation program. The concept of forest management initiated with sustained yield (Das 1982), has transformed to ‘multiple use’ (Das 1982, Choudhury 2005) and is now entering into the era of sustainable integrated management (Choudhury 2005). Recently, Canonizado and Hussain (1988) have written Integrated Forest Management. Plans for several forest divisions viz. Sunderban, Cox’s Bazaar and Sylhet. Canonizado and Ishtiaque (1988) have written an Integrated Forest Management Plan for the newly afforested coastal areas of Noakhali. However, the Forest Department has current forest management plans for these four divisions only and for the remaining forested areas have no current forest management plans (Choudhury 2005). These areas are being worked either on the basis of ‘advanced prescriptions’ (e.g. Blamforth 1985) or project-oriented ‘annual development programs’ (Ahmed 2003).

The present forest management is almost totally different from the past one in respect of its objectives and philosophy. Present forest management objectives are not only to produce timber only but also to provide clean air, clean water, healthy habitat for wildlife and to act as a major source of biodiversity and nature-based tourism. The present philosophy of forest management is to involve people in the management and create an environment so that people can feel that they have also some stakes on trees growing on the forestland and to improve living standard of the people residing in the vicinity of the forests.

6.9. Present Management objectives:

Present forest management is primarily guided by Forestry Master Plan (FMP) completed in 1993 with the assistance from ADB, UNDP and FAO. The objectives of present forest management are adopted following FMP and these are:

· enhancing environment preservation and conservation

· introducing rational forest land use

· increasing public participation and benefit from the forest

· creating forests on marginal and private lands

· institutional strengthening

· improving management practices

· Improving efficient resource utilization

Silviculture system followed to manage the forests:

The silvicultural systems practiced in the forests of Bangladesh varied according to forest type and management objectives. Since the independence of Bangladesh in 1971, felling has been banned in all forest areas. However, before that, three silvicultural systems dominated, namely the selection system, the coppice system and clear felling followed by artificial regeneration (Pant 1982). In the tropical moist evergreen and semi-evergreen forests, the main silvicultural system was clear felling followed by artificial regeneration, as developed during the British colonial period. However the rotation lengths have been periodically reduced. Initially the rotation was 120 years (Banrjee 1943); thereafter it was reduced to 100 years, 80 years (Zahiruddin 1954), 60 years (Chowdhury 1969) and then 40 years (Blamforth and Howlader 1988). In the moist deciduous forest, the principle silvicultural system has been the coppice system. In the mangroves of Sundarban, several types of systems are followed depending on the species, such as the selection system for Heritiera fomes, clear felling for Sonneratia apetala, and the coppice system for Ceriops spp.

6.10. Forest policy trends:

In the history of forest management, there have been four different government forest policies in Bangladesh since 1894. The first two forest policies (1894 and 1955) were exploitative in nature. During the colonial period, forests were managed following a management plan with the prime objective of meeting the needs for wood in various forms (e.g., sleepers and fuel for the railways, wood for construction and such other uses) on a sustained yield basis (Choudhury 2005).

Most of the regulatory documents were developed during the first two policy periods. The third forest policy instituted in 1979 by the independent Bangladesh government had contradictory elements and mutually inconsistent policy statements. It addressed for the first time forestry extension through mass motivation campaign. Current forest policy formulated in 1994 has been considered to be the most elaborate policy in the history of the country. Under this policy, participatory social forestry has been institutionalized in Bangladesh.

6.11. Current situation of the forestry sector of Bangladesh:

A high rate of deforestation is taking place all over the forests of Bangladesh. Some of the main causes of deforestation are problem in land tenure, high demand of forest products (timber, fuel wood, industrial raw materials, residential use etc.), population increase, shifting cultivation, lack of substitute products, forest fire etc.

Various factors negatively impact both policy and planning and implementation of effective forest policy. Issues such as lack of communication between the bureaucracy and technical staff, poor stakeholder participation, lack of valid studies, inter-organization conflicts and corruption all contribute to un-optimized policy goals and targets that cannot be realized under current conditions. It is clear, however, that many new and timely initiatives have recently been instituted that promote people-oriented forestry programs, with a bottom-up planning approach, giving social forestry an organizational structure with relevant laws that institutionally support local forest management practices.

Fig: Factors affecting forest and forest resources in Bangladesh.

Source: After Expert group survey analysis 2005–2006

Fig: Current state of forest planning in Bangladesh.

Source: After Expert group survey analysis, 2005–2006

6.12. International Convention, Treaty and Protocol (ICTPs) Signed by Bangladesh

No	Convention, Treaty and Protocol and Place and Year of Signing	Signed	Ratified or Accessed	Being Ratified
1.	International Plant Protection Convention (Rome, 1951)		01.09.78
2.	International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil (London, 1954 (as amended on I I April 1962 and 21 October 1969.)		28.12.81 (entry into force)
3.	Plant Protection Agreement for the South East Asia and Pacific Region (as amended) (Rome, 1956.)		04.12.74 (AC) (entry into force)
4.	Treaty Banning Nuclear Weapon Tests in the Atmosphere, in Outer Space and under Water (Moscow, 1963.)	13.03.85
5.	Treaty on Principles governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and use of outer Space Including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (London, Moscow, Washington, 1967.)		14.01.86 (AC)
6.	International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties (Brussels, 1969.)		04.02.82 (entry into force)
7.	Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar, 197 1) ("Ramsar Convention").		20.04.92 (ratified)
8.	Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, (Biological) and Toxic Weapons, and on Their Destruction (London, Moscow, Washington, 1972.)		13.03.85
9.	Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and natural Heritage (Paris, 1972.)		03.08.83 (Accepted) 03.11.83 (ratified)
10.	Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and flora (Washington, 1973.) (“CITIES Convention”)	20.11.81	18.02.82
11	United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (Montego bay, 1982)		10.12.82
12,	Vienna Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer (Vienna, 1985.)		02.08.90 (AC) 3 1. 1.0.90 (entry into force)
13.	Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (Montreal 1987.)		02.08.90 31.10.90 (AC) (entry into force)
14.	London Amendment to the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer (London, 1990. Copenhagen Amendment.)		18.03.94 (AC) 16.06.94 (entry into force)
15.	Convention on Early Notification of a Nuclear Accident (Vienna, 1986.)		07.01.88 (ratified) 07.02.88 (entry into force)
16.	Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident of Radiological Emergency (Vienna, 1986.)		07.01.88 (ratified) 07.02.88 (entry into force)
17.	Agreement on the Network of Aquaculture Centres in Asia and the Pacific (Bangkok, 1988.)		15.05.90 (ratified)
18.	Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal (Basel, 1989.)		01.04.93 (AC)
19.	International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness, Response and Cooperation (London, 1990.)	30.11.90
20.	United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (New York, 1992)	09.06.92	16.02.94
21	Convention on Biological Diversity, (Rio De Janeiro, 1992)	05.06.92	20.03.94
22.	International Convention to Combat Desertification, (Paris 1994.)	21.06.94		Ratified by cabinet during October 1995. Instrument has been sent by the Foreign Ministry very recently.
23.	Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques, (Geneva, 1976.)	-	03.10.79 (AC) (entry into force)
24.	Agreement Relating to the Implementation of Part XI of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 fish Stocks (New York, 1994.)	28.07.96
25.	Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 Relating to the Relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks (New York, 1995.)	04.12.95
26.	Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on their Destruction (Paris, 1993.)	14.01.93
27.	United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification in those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa (Paris, 1994.)	14.10.94	26.01.96
28.	Convention on Nuclear Safety (Vienna, 1994.)	21.09.95	21.09.95

6.13. Situation of the forest management of Bangladesh with respect to the world’s:

International and regional policy is ongoing with the goal of halting deforestation and shifting to a philosophy, and applied strategy, of sustainable development. Sustainable forest management requires the active participation, integration and coordination of every stakeholder, from planning to implementation. Although it is possible to attain a state of global equilibrium where the basic material needs of each person on earth are satisfied, achieving that goal will not be easy. Along with development of simple C&I for sustainable forest management and forest certification, policy makers must also focus on institutional development, professional skill development, use of indigenous technology, long-term financial support and use of appropriate and modern technology. These factors/goals are especially important in developing countries where effective, enforceable forest policies have historically been lacking. Despite a century-old scientific forest management plan in Bangladesh, depletion of forest resources and lands has continued, illustrating the failure of policies to attain the stated objectives. The major reasons for policy failures include institutional and management deficiencies, lack of political commitment, inappropriate policy instruments, poor coordination, dependency on external financial and technical assistance, corruption and land use conflicts. While a rising human population that exceeds the local and regional carrying capacity poses various socio-economic threats to forests, other factors may be even more critical. Bangladesh, for example, is highly dependent on external funding to carry out forestry and other programs. Disruption of those funds, or redirection of funds to other needs, can have significant negative effects on many environmental and sustainability initiatives. Progress also depends on cooperation, commitment and maintenance of effective programmes through political changes and shifts in philosophy. While underdeveloped countries can usually formulate judicial forest policies, they are often unable to maintain the actual pace of implementation. It is not unusual for conflicts to develop between sectoral policies. The landuse policy of Bangladesh, for example, does not conform well with forestry activities (Choudhury 2003). In addition, the National Water Policy is not consistent with forestry policy regarding placement of commercial plantations (GOB 1999). As shown in this review and analysis, participatory forestry policy and environmental planning in Bangladesh are completely under State control. Because a ‘‘bottom up’’ approach to planning has yet to be implemented, actual needs are not always met. Gonzalez et al (2006) studied a small community-based organization in the mountains of Puerto Rico and found that their bottom-up planning strategies were effective. Promotion and implementation of locally derived, grass-root strategies, including participatory forestry management, co-management of protected areas and forestry and environmental education, are likely to have a positive impact on the future of forests in Bangladesh, despite the current pitfalls and negative directives that often dominate current policy.