Papers

CHAPTER FIVE

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1. Socio-Economic Background of Respondents

5.1.1. Family Size and Land Holdings

The total number of households was found 36 with a total population of 192. Fifty nine percent of the total population was male and the remaining was female of the total household members , 12% were loss than 10 years old , 21% were in 10-20, 11 % in 20-30, 18% in 30-40, 19% in 40-50, 11% in 50-60, and 8% were older than 60 year total (12%). The maximum percentage of people, i.e., 21% full under the age group 10-20 and minimum, i. e., 8%full under the age group older than 60 year. Male and female ratio has been found 100:70, which means women’s percentage were far less than male.

Table 5.1: Age class distribution (n %) of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Sex	Age Group (Years)
	0-10	10-20	20-30	30-40	40-50	50-60	>60	Total
Male n=113	11	25	12	12	22	11	7	59
Female n=79	13	17	10	24	15	12	9	41
Total N=192	12	21	11	18	19	11	8	100

Family size of the study area varied from a minimum of three to a maximum eight, averaging 5.30 members. The earning member of family of the study area varied from a minimum of two to maximum of six averaging 3.70 members. The average family size was maximum i. e., 5.9 in low income farm category while the average earning members of family was maximum i. e., in high income farm category. The earning members constituted 70% of the total family members of the study area where the percentage was maximum in the high income group, i. e, 85%.

Table 5.2: Land holdings and earning members of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari.

Group	Average land holding (acre)	Average family size	Average earning members	Percentage of earning member in the family
High income n=12	4.3(3.3-7)*	4.9(3-6)	4.2(2-5)	85
Medium income n=12	3.7(2.6-5)	5.2(3-7)	3.7(2-5)	71
Low income n=12	2.4(2-3.5)	5.9(3-8)	3.3(2-6)	56
Average	3.4	5.3	3.7	70

*Value in parentheses indicates the ranges.

Extent of the land varied considerably among farm categories (Total 5.2). The size of the land owned by high income farmer ranged from a minimum of 3.3 acre to a maximum of 7 acre, averaging 4.3 acre (2.6 acre to 5 acre) for the medium and 2.4 acre (2 acre to 3.5 acre) for the low income farmer respectively. It was noticed that there was an interesting relationship between the of earning member of family and the average land holdings by the farmers , which increased with an increase in the average number of earning members of the family of the study area . It was because, the more the number of earning members , the more they were found to be capable of working in a larger extent of agricultural land, ultimately the more the production accelerating the total annual income of the family.

5.1.2. Mean Annual Income

The mean annual income of high income farmers was Tk. 35,000 with a minimum of Tk. 30,000 to a maximum of Tk. 38,000 (Table 5.3). The income of medium income farmers ranged from a minimum of Tk. 20,000 to a maximum of 27,000, averaging Tk. 22,333. Corresponding figures for the low income group was Tk. 15,583 that ranged between Tk 10,000 and Tk. 17,000. The mean annual income of the farmers is Tk. 24,305.

Table 5.3: Mean annual income of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Group	Total income (tk)/annum	Average (tk)/annum
High income (>30,000) n=12	420,000 (30,000-38,000)*	35,000
Medium income(20,000-30,000) n=12	268,000 (20,000-27,000)	22,333
Low income (<20,000) n=12	187,000 (12,000-17,000)	15,583
Average	24,305	24,305

*Value in parentheses indicates the ranges.

Average per capita incomes of high, medium and low income group of the study area were 7142, 4294 and 2641 Tk per year respectively. It should be noted that an average per capita income of Bangladesh is 32,900 Tk per year. It indicates that Hajong tribes were in the state of below the poverty level. The reason behind that there was no opportunities for getting job in the study area and lack of market system through which they could sold their product made by own.

5.1.3. Educational Status

The literacy rate of the study area was estimated to be forty seven percent which was below to national education rate (62.66%). There were two primary and one high school in the study area. Different NGO (World Vision, ASA, Caritas etc.) were working in the study area for the upliftment of educational status of the people. Most of the educated people were in secondary level (21%) and lowest in graduate level (only 1%) (Table 5.4).

Table 5.4: Educational Satus of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Level of education		Number of individuals	Total	Percentage
Illiterate		100	188	53
Literate	Primary	35		19
	Secondary	39		21
	Higher Secondary	12		6
	Graduate	2		1

(Age above six years)

5.1.4. Occupation

The major economic activities of the study area were centered on agriculture. Agriculture was the primary occupation of all respondents irrespective of farm categories (Table 5.5). Fifty percent of the high and thirty three percent of the medium income

farmer were engaged in job, about forty two percent of the high income farmers and one-

quarter (25%) of the medium income farmers were engaged in different kind of business, about 25% of the low income farmers were worked as labor, which was significantly more on comparison to high and medium income farmers. Small jobs were available for educated person. As a secondary job, the highest, 30.66% people are engaged in business. In case of other job like fishing and hunting were very popular in low income group.

Table 5.5: Occupation of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Categories	Occupation
	Primary (Agriculture)	Secondary
		Job	Business	Laborer	Etc.
High income	100	50	42	00	8
Medium income	100	33	25	17	25
Low income	100	00	25	25	50
Average	100	27.66	30.66	14	27.66

5.1.5. Clothing

‘Dhuti’ was vary popular dress in Hajong. Males wore ‘Dhuti’ in different festival. ‘Pathin’a popular woman dress used in same purpose. As the traditional everyday use it has been found that males wore shirt, lungi, T-shirt and females were found to wore shari, blowse etc.

The use of dhuti, pathin was high (100%) among the high income farmers than the other two group (Table 5.6.). The intensity of using these cloths by the low income farmers was 75% and 58% respectively. They were reported to wear those cloths very occasionally only, particularly in festivals.

Table 5.6: Clothing of the Hajong tribe Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Name	Average costs/year (tk)			Average cost/ family (tk)	Source	Family using cloths (%)
	Group					Group
	High income	Medium income	Low income			High income	Medium income	Low income
Shirt	356	227	117	233.33	Market	100	100	100
Lungi	327	228	138	231	Market	100	100	100
Dhuti	256	159	123	179.33	Market	100	92	75
T-Shirt	165	110	59	111.33	Market	100	83	58
Shari	353	243	134	233.33	Market	100	100	100
Blowse	128	98	59	95	Market	100	100	100
Patin	305	133	112	183.33	Own	100	50	42
Total	1890	1168	742	1266.65

It was evident that each family spent Tk.1266.65 yearly for the clothing irrespective of the farm category. The average costs spent yearly for clothing were Tk.1890, Tk. 1168, and Tk. 742 by the high, medium and low income farmers respectively. All types of cloths were purchased from the market except dhuti and pathin, which were woven by the Hajong themselves.

5.1.6. Animal Resources

The domestic animals kept by the Hajong were mainly cow, goat, chicken and duck. Among those animals, chicken constituted the major part averaging 9.5 in number per family followed by duck, goat and cow averaging 8, 5.33 and 4.33 per family respectively (Table 5.7). The average number of all types of animals was noticed to be the highest in the rich farmers.

Table 5.7: Animal resources of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Type	Ownership pattern	Fodder	Source of fodder	Numbers/family
				High income group	Medium income group	Low income group	Average	%
Cow	Owned(100)*	Grasses, leaves.	Forest	5.5	4.5	3	4.33	16
Goat	Owned(100)	Grasses, leaves.	Forest	7	5	4	5.33	20
Chicken	Owned(100)	Rice, rice husk.	Homestead	13	9	6.5	9.5	35
Duck	Owned(100)	Rice, rice husk.	Homestead	10	8.5	5.5	8	29

*Values in parentheses indicate the percentages.

The sources of fodder for the domestic animals were constituted both by the forest and home stead forest. Rice and rice husk were the main fodders for the chicken and duck. The cows were observed allowing running loose during daytime to facilitate them to graze in the surrounding forests or hill and also in agricultural fields. The most available animal resources were chicken (35%) and the lowest cow (16%).

5.1.7. Food Habit

It was found that, the Hajong tribe consumed rice as the main staple food. Everything else such as wheat, vegetables, meat, fish, etc is regarded as side dish (Table 5.8). Salt and oils were found to be used as condiments in cooking the vegetables and curry to increase its taste and delicacy. Green chilies were very common as a condiment.

It was found that the rice, the Hajong consumed mainly came from the farmer’s own agricultural field irrespective of farm category. Most of the meat consumed by the high and the medium income farmers were obtained from the market. As low income farmers major secondary job was hunting the source of meat was forest. Each farm category gets fish (8%) from the market and the rest mainly from the water bodies owned by the farmer. In case of low income farmers some of the fishes (17%) were collected from the water bodies in and with in the forest. Farmer of all categories consumed eggs obtained from their own poultry. They were more interested to allow hatching of chicken to increase the number in their clutch to facilitate income through further selling them. All the farmers bought spices, salt, and oils from the neighboring market.

Table 5.8: Food habit of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Items	Average consumption(Kg)/family		Sources (%)
	Daily	Monthly	Own			Market			Forest
			Income group			Income group			Income group
			High	Medium	Low	High	Medium	Low	High	Medium	Low
Rice	3.66	110	83	92	83	17	8	17	00	00	00
Wheat	0.5	15	00	00	00	100	100	100	00	00	00
Vegetable	1	30	83	100	100	17	00	00	00	00	00
Meat	0.05	1.5	17	34	33	83	66	42	00	00	25
Fish	0.25	7.5	92	83	75	8	8	8	00	9	17
Spices	0.03	1	00	00	00	100	100	100	00	00	00
Salt	0.13	4	00	00	00	100	100	100	00	00	00
Oil	0.13	4	00	00	00	100	100	100	00	00	00
Eggs	1.87 Nos	56 Nos	75	92	100	25	8	00	00	00	00

In Bangladesh rice the single major food crop. The present level of consumption of rice is about 0.49 kg/person/day (Kabirullah, 2003). But from the study area it has been found that the level of consumption of rice was 0.69 kg/person/day, which is high in comparison to national intake. The main reason behind that was Hajong people’s primary income source was agriculture and they take rice three or four times in a day.

Fish is the main and the most popular protein food of the people of Bangladesh. Per capita fish consumption is about 27gm/day (Kabirullah, 2003). In the study area it was found 47gm/day. It is high than the national intake rate because there were lots of privately owned ponds and availability of water bodies in the forest.

The most common meats in Bangladesh come from cow, chicken, buffalo, and goat. The average yearly per capita consumption of all kinds of meat in the country is only about 3.5kg (Kabirullah, 2003). But average yearly per capita consumption of meat in the study area was 3.44kg, which is below in comparison to national intake.

5.1.8. Land Use Pattern

It has been found from the study area that 100% of lands were their own land (Table 5.9). On average every family has 3.4 acre land out of which most of the land (63%) were under agricultural purpose, because each family practice agriculture as their primary source of income. They mainly cultivated Aush, Amon and Boro paddy in those lands. Among rest of the land 23% land were used for tree plantation purposes. Other different uses such as house construction (includes house, kitchen, toilet, store house etc), home garden, vegetable cultivation, pond as source of fish contains 2%, 3%, 4%, 1% respectively. 2% lands were used for miscellaneous purpose such as road etc. Two percent lands were totally remained useless.

Table 5.9: Land use pattern of Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Average land holdings/ family	Land type (%)		Agricultural land (%)	Others uses (%)
	Own land	Leased land		House	Home garden	Vegetables	Ponds	Plantation	Others	Useless
3.4 acre	100%	0%	63%	2%	3%	4%	1%	23%	2%	2%

5.2. State of Ethno-botanical Uses

5.2.1. Food Materials

Various parts of the pants were used as food evident from the survey. In some cases only one of the parts was used, in others more than one part was edible and in some cases the whole plant is used. The mode of usage was one of the important aspects in using the forest plant. The Hajong used the following plants for various purposes, which was revealed from the survey.

5.2.1.1 Root and Tuber

The root of Yam (Dioscorea sp.)And Taro (Colocasia esculent) was cooked as vegetables.

5.2.1.2. Fruits

The green fruits of banana were found to be used as vegetables.

5.2.1.3. Young Shoots and Leaves

Young shoots of different bamboo species, especially Muli bamboo were cooked vegetables. It is generally the now tender growth of the rhizome apex into a young culm consisting of compressed internodes protected by a number of leathery sheaths. After removing the sheaths the inner tender portion was reported to be thoroughly washed in water and then cut into pieces, which were cooked to consume as vegetables.

The consumption of bamboo shoots by the tribal has the scientific base, which was reported by Banik (1997). He informed quoting young (1954) that the average values for various bamboo species as total digestive carbohydrate 4.5% protein 2.6%, fat 0.3%, and ash 0.9%. This proved that this is a nutrient rich food.

The Hajong tribe was also found to consume the young shoots of cane. The young stem was peeled off and the inner soft and tender portion was cooked to consume as vegetable. The leaves of sajna (Moringa oleifera) and tentul (Tamarindus indica) were found to be used by the Hajong as vegetables.

5.2.1.4. Inner Stem

There are several varieties of bananas in the forest areas and also in homestead forest. The white soft core after peeling off the out side was observed to use as vegetables by the Hajong. The hair–like strings from the soft core were removed by finger to make them free from nuisance during eating. Usually the white core is cut into several pieces to cook it as vegetable.

5.2.1.5. Flowers and Inflorescence

They also ate the inflorescence of banana as vegetables. The flowers of turmeric (Curcuma longa) and gamar (Gmelina arborea) used as.

5.2.1.6. Seeds

The seeds of kanthal (Artocarpus heterophyllus) cooked as vegetable.

5.2.2. Fruits

The survey revealed that fruits provided a seasonal food supply to the Hajong tribe and wild fruits were most frequently consumed as snack food especially by children. Fruits are good source of vitamins and minerals. Most of the wild fruits were reported to usually be looted prematurely by children and the Hajong generally considers fruits as the children’s food rather than food for adults. Nasrin and khalifa (2004) reported that around thirty different types of fruits were consumed by the Hajong. Kanthal and Am was the fruit tree species frequently observed in almost every house of the Hajong community. Various fruits consumed by the Hajong tribe along with their parts used, season of availability and the sources were recorded during the survey (Table 5.10), most of which were collected from own homestead forest.

Table 5.10: Fruit consumption of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Bangla name	Scientific name	Parts used	Season	Sources (%)
				Own	Forest	Market
Am	Mangifera indica	Inner flesh	Summer	72	18	10
Amloki	Emblica officanalis	Outer parts	Winter	53	27	20
Amra	Spondias pinnata	Outer parts	Summer	69	16	15
Anarash	Annas comosus	Inner flesh	Rainy	28	39	33
Bel	Aegle marmelos	Inner flesh	Spring	44	30	26
Boroi	Zizyphus mauritiana	Outer parts	Winter	100
Chalta	Dillenia indica	Whole parts	Rainy	64	20	16
Dumor	Ficus spp.	Whole parts	All	39	48	13
Jalpai	Elaeocarpus robustus	Outer parts	Winter	64	36
Jam	Syzygium sp.	Outer parts	Summer	78	22
Kanthal	Artocarpus heterophyllus	Inner parts	Summer	100
Kola	Musa sp.	Inner flesh	All	100
Lebu	Citrus grande	Juice	All	100
Litchu	Litchi chinensis	Inner flesh	Summer	38	38	24
Narikel	Cocos nucifera	Inner flesh, Juice	All	89	11
Papay	Carica papaya	Inner flesh	All	100
Payara	Psidium guajava	Whole parts	Rainy	100
Tentul	Tamarindus indica	Inner pulp, seed	Winter	61	39

Figure 2: Source of fruits (%).

Most of the fruits (Figure 2) were collected from their own homestead forest (72%). Forest and market acts as the source fruits by 20% and 8% respectively. The collect fruit from forest (Nayabil forest) illegally. There was no rule or involvement of Hajong people in the forest protection, production and conservation with government. That’s why they do not get any legal benefit from forest such as fruit collection.

5.2.3. Medicinal Plants

It was evident from the survey that the Hajong were greatly dependent on herbal medicine. Because of the inaccessibility to the modern medical facilities, they have much dependence on indigenous medical practitioner, called Kabiraj who generally prepare medicine from the plants available in the forest, and also in the homestead forest, give prescription to the community members who face disease. Since they were found to be the most depended on herbal treatment, they had a greater understanding of medicinal plants too. The survey revealed that not only the Kabiraj, but also every elder community member had a good knowledge of the medicinal value of some plant, usually those species used to treat common diseases like cough, cold, fever, viral fever, headache, stomach ache, joint ache, diarrhea, dysentery, minor wounds and cuts etc. some 19 plant species including herbs, shrubs and trees (Table 5.11 and 5.12 ) frequently used by the Hajong tribe for the purpose of curing from certain ailments are recorded during the study.

Some earlier studies regarding herbal medicines are undertaken in Bangladesh, which also proved the dependence of the various tribals on medicinal plants. Alam (1992) reported use of medicinal plants for different ailments by the Marma tribe and he presented ethno-botanical data for 76 species while Nasrin and Khalifa, 2004 recorded 52 species of plants used by the tribal people of Sylhet, Chittagong and CHTs.

Hajong is the tribals, the people of which totally depends on medicinal plants in their everybody use. The leaves of Tulsi and Manikong are used for eye; leaves of Palash for heart ache; Nim leaves for chiken pox, Citka for disentary; Lajjabati for women diseases, etc. (Nasrin and Khalifa, 2004)

The medicinal plants are affected by the destruction of forests day by day. Attention should be paid to conserve the indigenous knowledge of medical treatment and herbal plants, which the forefather of the Hajong and other ethnic communities for generation, recognized for the treatment of their various diseases.

Table 5.11: Medicinal plants used by the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Bengali name	Scientific name	Type of plant	Name of diseases	Sources (%)
				Own	Forest
Amloki	Emblica officinalis	Tree	Blood dysentery, vomiting, appetizer	100
Amra	Spondias pinnata	Tree	Dysentery, joint pain	69	31
Anarash	Annas cosmosus	Herb	Jaundice	72	28
Arjun	Terminalia arjuna	Tree	Burning, dysentery	66	34
Bashok	Adhatoda vasica	Shrub	Cough, asthma		100
Bel	Aegle marmelos	Tree	Gastric, flatulence	69	31
Bohera	Terminalia belerica	Tree	Dysentery, asthma, cough		100
Dhatura	Datura metel	Shrub	Dysentery		100
Horitoki	Terminalia chebula	Tree	Asthma, heart disease		100
Lajjabati	Mimusa pudica	Herb	Dysentery, wound, women disease	100
Mehendi	Lawsonia alba	Shrub	Skin disease, head ache, jaundice	100
Nim	Azadirachta indica	Tree	Fever, skin disease, diarrhea, insect biting	100
Nishinda	Vitex regunda	Herb	Cough, weakness		100
Patho kuchi	Kalanchoe pinnata	Herb	Cough, flatulence	38	62
Piaj	Allium cepa	Herb	Common cold	100
Sarpaganda	Rawulfia serpentina	Creeper	Fever, belly ache		100
Tentul	Tamarindus indica	Tree	Appetizer	100
Thankuni	Centella asiatica	Herb	Dysentery		100
Tulsi	Ocimum sanctum	Shrub	Cough, cold	100

Figure 3: Source of medicinal plants (%)

Table 5.12: Using pattern of medicinal plants with parts used by the Hajong tribe of Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Bengali name	Parts used	Using pattern
Amloki	Fruits	Ground fruits are soaked in water. After decanting the water is drunk.
Amra	Bark, leaves	The decoction obtained from the grinding of bark is drunk.
Anarash	Inner part of fruit	The fruit is eaten as raw.
Arjun	Bark	The bark is soaked in water after grinding. The decanted water is then drunk
Bashok	Leaves	The juices obtained from leaves bruised with water are drunk.
Bel	Fruits	Juices obtained from the fruit are drunk.
Bohera	Fruits	The fruit are soaked in water, after decanting, the liquid is drunk.
Dhatura	Leaves	The juices of leaves are drunk.
Horitoki	Fruits	Ground fruits are soaked in water. After decanting the water is drunk.
Lajjabati	Leaves	Juices obtained from the leaf are drunk.
Mehendi	Leaves	Juices obtained from the leaves used over the skin and drunk mixing with water.
Nim	Bark, leaves	The bark and leaves are boiled with water. After decanting the warm water is used in bathing for skin disease while the paste obtained from grinding the leaves are placed over the wound created by insect biting.
Nishinda	Seed, leaves	The juice obtained from the seed and leaves are drunk.
Patho kuchi	Whole plant	The leaves and slender stem are rubbed and the decoction is drunk with slight salt.
Piaj	Whole parts	The onion is peeled off and the smell is taken frequently by holding it very close to the nose.
Sarpaganda	Root	The roots are grounded and the decoction is fed.
Tentul	Leaves	The leaves are smothered and mixed with salt. The tender leaves and ripe fruits are taken as the appetizer.
Thankuni	Whole plants	The whole plant along with roots are crushed in pestle, mixed with salt and eaten with rice.
Tulsi	Leaves, root	The juice of leaves and roots crushed in slight water after decanting, the liquid is drunk mixed with 1-2 drop honey. The decoction of roots is also applicable in diarrhea.

Most of the medicinal plants (Figure 3) were collected from own homestead (53%) and rest from forest (47%). Overuse of forest species and introduction of exotic species by government hampers the growth of medicinal plants in forest. Lack of seeds and modern cultivation system reduce homestead medicinal plants. No initiative has been taken by government to conserve the plants to be utilized by local community. Different diseases and pests were also a major factor to hamper the growth of medicinal plants.

5.2.4. Species Used as Fuel wood

Fuel wood was observed to be the major source of energy for cooking in the study area. Generally the Hajong collect fallen trees or dried out branches of different trees for cooking purposes. They were observed to use the branches, main stem wood, leaves, and twigs for this purpose (Table 5.13). According to them, trees were available and abundant in the forests; their dwelling place and could cut the trees whenever they pleased without any strict restriction. So they did not go for using the lops and tops of trees rather than the easily available main stem wood. Besides those Hajong community were also observed to use agricultural residues and cow dung as energy for cooking, which are easily available in agricultural field.

Table 5.13: Energy for cooking by the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Type	Percentage of family used	Sources
Branch	100	Forest, Homestead forest
Twigs	100	Forest, Homestead forest
Leaves	100	Forest, Homestead forest
Main stem wood	86	Forest
Agricultural residues	100	Agricultural field
Cow dung	100	Homestead forest

The bulk amounts of fuel wood were found to be collected in winter and spring seasons through felling trees and were stacked in the large open space in front of home. Sometimes fuel wood also stored in kitchen for the purpose of using during monsoon. Although cuttings trees for fire wood leads to destruction of forests, but all the same it is very eventual for their survival, which was evident from the use of a certain number of plants (Table 5.14). The Hajong usually use for the purpose of energy production.

Table 5.14: Species used for fuel by the Hajong tribe of Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Bengali name	Scientific name	People used (%)
Akashmoni	Acacia auricoliformis	92
Arjun	Terminalia arjuna	86
Bohera	Termanalia belerica	78
Champa	Michelia champaca	89
Gamar	Gmelina arborea	58
Jalpai	Elaeocarpus robustus	47
Jarul	Lagerstroemia speciosa	69
Kadam	Anthocephalus chinensis	50
Rain tree	Samanea saman	89
Simul	Bombax ceiba	36
Sisso	Dalbergia sissoo	78

In the study area Akashmoni (44%) was highly preferred (Figure 4) to be used as fuel wood following Raintree (33%), Jarul (14%). Other species occupies only 9%. Akashmoni is readily available in homestead and forest. As this species are fast growing they can used this species frequently. Hajong community mainly collects fuel wood from forest illegally. No system has been initiated by government for local people regarding collection of fuel wood from forest.

Figure 4: Highly preferred species for energy (%)

5.2.5. Species used for Timber

All of the houses the Hajong community were found to be made from bamboo, wooden posts and sungrass. The trunks of certain timber species, from which the bark was removed to serve as the main posts and major crossbeams of Hajong house. The common construction species were Silkoroi (Albizia procera) and Gamar (Gmelina arborea). Beside those the Hajong were reported to use a number of other species for timber (Table 5.15).

Table 5.15: Species used for timber by the Hajong tribe of Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Bengali Name	Scientific Name	People used (%)
Am	Mangifera indica	81
Champa	Michelia champaca	78
Chapalish	Artocarpus chaplasha	97
Gamar	Gmelina arborea	97
Garjan	Dipterocarpus turbinatus	81
Jam	Syzygium sp.	97
Jarul	Lagerstroemia speciosa	94
Kanthal	Artocarpus heterophyllus	97
Mahagoni	Swietenia mahagoni	92
Narikel	Cocos nucifera	72
Rain tree	Samanea saman	81
Sil koroi	Albizia procera	92

Sattar (1998) reported about the durability and resistance to bio-deterioration of the species used by the tribal people for timber; e.g.; Gamer is dimensionally stable, does not show any degradation during long time use. The tribal may not be aware of the scientific reason but know it through the traditional use.

Figure 5: Highly preferred species for timber (%)

In case of preference (Figure 5) Jam (31%) was highly used. Other highly preferred species were Am (25%), Kanthal (17%), Chapalish (8%) and 5% was combination of other species.

Hajong people have been found to collect timber from forest illegally and rarely the government sold trees to the local community in a high price. This was a poor marketing system where negotiation between government and people were held. Poor people hardly benefited from this system. Poor transportation system also increases carrying cost of timber of Hajong people.

They usually store their timber in a traditional was, which do not have any scientific basis. That’s why these timber deteriorated by diseases and pests attack. Government and NGO’s were not take any preventive measures against those diseases and pests.

5.2.6. Festivals and Plants

In Hajong community each and every part of the festivals were observed to be intimately associated with various plants (Table 5.16).

Table 5.16: Species used in festivals of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Festivals	Plant used	Scientific name
Durga puja	Bel	Aegle marmelos
	Tulshi	Ocimum sanctum
Sarashti puja	Palash	Butea monosperma
	Sapla	Nymphaea nouchali
Monosha puja	Sapla	Nymphaea nouchali
Laxmi puja	Til	Sesamum indicum
	Horitoki	Terminalia chebula
Bishkarma puja	Til	Sesamum indicum
	Horitoki	Terminalia chebula
Sib puja	Dutura	Datura metel

It was also found that Hajong people traditionally use leaves of mango tree and banana in marriage ceremony; mango and chandan tree after the death of anyone to burn the dead body.

Lack of scientific management, introduction of exotic species, overuse of resources, disease and pest attack hampers the growth of their important plants.

5.2.7. Bamboo for Basketry and other Utensils.

The survey revealed that the baskets were an essential part and parcel of Hajong lives. Every man weaved baskets and it was his job. There were baskets for seeds, other for harvesting; there were baskets for women others for men; there were portable baskets and stationary ones; baskets of clothing or for chickens. There were very small and very large baskets. Those baskets also ranged from delicate, lidded baskets in which women generally keep their jewelry to the simply woven baskets, which generally serve to transport cotton. All of the baskets were made mainly of bamboo (particularly baria and muli) and rarely canes (Calamus tenuis) if available.

Hajong community mainly made baskets for their own purpose. However, once they made different types of baskets for selling purpose. But lacking of proper marketing system they got insufficient price value of their product. For this reason they have gave up the production of basket for selling purpose. Government did not take any initiative for the development of market system, which could generate extra income to them. Lack of raw materials, transportation of product, improper market channel, dominancy of village leaders were the major problem in the market system.

5.3. Homestead Forest

It has been found from the survey was that Hajong community prefers species in their homestead which will be beneficial for use in long term. Twenty three tree species were tremendously planted in their homestead (Table 5.17). Before plantation they considered seed availability, rotation of the species and more importantly uses of the species. Am (Mangifera indica) and Kanthal (Artocarpus heterophyllus) were more dominant in the study area.

Am (12%) was the most dominant species (Figure 6) in the homestead forest of Hajong community and other dominant species were Kanthal (10%), Payara (9%), Boroi (8%), Narikel (7%), Supari (7%), Jam (5%), Mahagoni (4%) and other species occupies (38%). It has been also found that fruit species were more dominant than other species in the study area. Mahagoni (4%) was only exceptional in the study area. They were highly planted because seeds were easily available and also fast growing species.

Figure 6: Dominant species in homestead (%).

Table 5.17: Tree species in homestead forest of the Hajong tribe in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Local Name	Scientific Name	Uses
Akashmoni	Acacia auricoliformis	Fuel wood
Am	Mangifera indica	Fruit
Amloki	Emblica officinalis	Fruit, Medicine
Amra	Spondias pinnata	Fruit, Medicine
Arjun	Terminalia arjuna	Medicine, Fuel wood
Bamboo	Bambusa spp.	House construction, Furniture, Fodder
Bel	Aegle marmelos	Fruit, Medicine
Boroi	Zizyphus mauritiana	Fruit
Chalta	Dillenia indica	Fruit
Dumor	Ficus spp.	Fruit, Fodder
Jalpai	Elaeocarpus robustus	Fruit, Fuel wood
Jam	Syzygium sp.	Fruit, House construction, Furniture
Kadam	Anthocephalus chinensis	Fodder
Kanthal	Artocarpus heterophyllus	Fruit, Fodder
Litchu	Litchi chinensis	Fruit
Mahagoni	Swietenia mahagoni	Furniture
Narikel	Cocos nucifera	Fruit, House construction
Nim	Azadirachta indica	Medicine
Payara	Psidium guajava	Fruit
Rain tree	Samanea saman	Fuel wood, House construction
Simul	Bombax ceiba	Fuel wood, Fodder
Supari	Areca catechu	Fruit
Tentul	Tamarindus indica	Fruit, Medicine

Hajong people do not follow any scientific management system for their plantation. No initiative has been taken so far by government and NGO’s to provide seeds and technical help to them.

5.4. Extinction of Species from the Study Area

It has been found that, there were lots of species which were extinct from the study area (Table 5.18). The major reason for the extinction of those species was introduction of fast growing and exotic species by different Government and Non-Government Organization. Those fast growing species were mainly Akashmoni (Acacia auricoliformis), Mahagoni (Swietenia mahagoni) and Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus camaldulensis). Ultimately people became less interested to plant and save of indigenous species. However, it became hard to raise trees from seeds because seeds were also became extinct from the study area.

For the extinction of some valuable species, Hajong community faced problem in their social, economical and religious activities. Extinction of medicinal plant creates health problem also. For this reason people of Hajong community went to India crossing adjacent Indian border to participate in different religious activities and to collect valuable plant parts.

Table 5.18: Extinct species in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Name of the Species	Scientific Name
Arhar	Cajanus cajan
Ashatha	Ficus religiosa
Ashok	Saraca indica
Bot	Ficus benghalensis
Grita Kumari	Aloe barbadensis
Jainti	Sesbania sesban
Jalpadma	Nelumbo nucifera
Mohua	Madhuca latifolia
Moniraj	Cycas pectinata
Nisinda	Vitex regunda
Pahari Simul	Bombax insigne
Rakta chandan	Pterocarpus santalinus

5.5. Hunting

The survey revealed that the Hajong did hunting for dual purposes; one was for the highly valued meats and another was for protecting their plantation.

Hajong community mainly hunting pig from the forest as their big source of meat. The procedure of pig hunting was very simple and less time consuming. For hunting 8-10 people with net (used as trap) entered in to the forest and hide themselves to find any pig. When they noticed any pig in the forest, they put the net in one side of the pig and rest of the people surround the pig from other three sides. Then hunter moves towards the pig, consequently the circle become smaller and the pig was caught in the net. This method was very useful because the pig could not jump over the net. In one day they could caught 3-4 pigs from the forest.

5.6. Indigenous Knowledge (IK)

The survey revealed that the Hajong practiced a number of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in their everyday activities which they were inherited from their forefather, practiced in every aspect of their life and dispersed intentionally and unintentionally to their followers. The farmers of the Hajong community reported certain dimensions of such IKs during the survey conducted there, a comprehensive illustration of which is cited here.

5.6.1. IK regarding housing

The houses were observed to be made of bamboo and other timber species, which were traditional in their house making. The poles of trees used as posts in house were treated by smoking in the glowing fire to increase their durability and resistance against biodegradation. Most of the cases kitchen and toilet were built little bit away from the house.

5.6.2. IK regarding fuel wood storage

Collected fuel wood was stored in free space around the house all over the year except rainy season. In rainy season they store fuel wood in their kitchen. They believe keeping fuel wood under the light of sun will keep the fuel wood in better condition for ignition.

5.6.3. IK regarding tree plantation

Hajong people prefers to plant trees in every single space around the house. It was also found that trees were planted around the pond and road side. They plant trees maintaining a definite spacing and in row. Most of the cases they like fast growing and fruit bearing species. However, they plant medicinal plant and vegetables under the tree. Nim (Azadirachta indica) and Tulsi (Ocimum sanctum) were available in every family. They think those species will keep them safe from diseases.

5.6.4. IK regarding timber harvesting

To be sure about maturity of trees and bamboos, the farmers were observed to strike them with the back of a dao, the essential part and parcel of their every day life. When they listened somewhat metallic sounds, they were confirmed about the maturity of the plants.

It was reported that they harvested the tree species during the winter season. Sattar (1998) assessed the scientific basis of such reason that tree have lesser chance of attack by fungus and insects during winter due to low temperature and humidity.

5.7. Gender Role of the Hajong Tribe

It was evident from the survey that all the activities regarding farming, housing, weaving, food preparing, festivals etc. were gendered among the Hajong tribes (Table 5.19). Women were the one who must feed the family members. They got earlier than the men in order to pound the daily rice, kindle the fire and cook rice. Firewood collection for daily cooking was the task of women. Harvesting water from the pond and carrying it to the home two times daily was also the job of women while the young girls helped their mother. The gaining, i.e., separating the seeds from the cotton; spinning and dying of yarns; and finally weaving the clothes in the handloom were reported to exclusively be the women’s work. The poultry was also observed to be feed and taken care by the woman.

On the other hand, the task of house construction which demanded more attention and strength was reported to be performed by the men while the collection of sungrass for thatching was done mainly by the women. All works regarding basketry and manufacturing other utensils like wooden mortars and pestles for pounding rice, strap for baskets etc. went to the responsibility of men. Hunting was exclusively the job of men who also prepared the hunting devices and traps. Fishing and non timber forest product collection from the forest is the major job performed by men. Young boys support in that job.

In the preparation of horticultural and agricultural land were only done by men and the women, even did not go there during such operation whereas, the planting, sowing of seeds and paddy cutting were done participating both of the sexes. Weeding, mulching and harvesting were done by men only with the collaboration of young boys.

Table 5.19: Gender role of the Hajong tribe in their daily life activities in Nalitabari, Sherpur.

Activities		Gender Role (%)
		Male	Female
Housing	Construction	100
	Sungrass collection for thatching
Non timber forest product collection		100
Basketry		100
Food preparation and water collection			100
Decoration for festival		50	50
Hunting		100
Fishing		100
Weaving			100
Agriculture and horticulture	Field preparation	100
	Planting, paddy cutting	50	50
	Weeding and mulching	100
	Harvesting	100

The task of decoration, preparation and repairing of the bamboo flutes were reported to exclusively be reserved for the men. Home decoration was done by only women and young girls. Besides those all the religious and ceremonial sacrifices were governed by men. People of Hajong community prefer to live in peace by collaborating each other.

ETHNO-BOTANICAL PERCEPTION OF THE HAJONG TRIBE OF NALITABARI UPAZILLA, SHERPUR, BANGLADESH

		Absract
		Introduction
		Methodology
		Literature Review
		Study Area
		Result And Discussion
		Recomendation And Conclusion
		References
		Author